The Holy See

The Holy See (Latin: Sancta Sedes, Italian: Santa Sede) is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome. The primacy of Rome makes its bishop, commonly known as the Pope, the worldwide leader of the church. 

Since Rome is the preeminent episcopal see of the Church, it contains the central government of the universal Church, including various agencies essential to administration. Diplomatically, the Holy See acts and speaks for the whole Roman Catholic Church. It is also recognized by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained."

Often incorrectly referred to as "the Vatican", the Holy See is not the same entity as the Vatican City State, which came into existence only in 1929.

The Vatican or Vatican City State is the country or sovereign land and properties owned by the Holy See.

The Holy See or Apostolic See is the episcopal see of Rome, dating back to early Christian times of which St Peter, Prince of the Apostles is the founder and first bishop. 

Why Holy See instead of See of Rome?

Both are correct. Every episcopal see is considered holy. In Greek, the adjective "holy" or "sacred" is constantly applied to all such sees as a matter of course. In the West, the adjective is not commonly added, but it does form part of an official title of two sees: 

1. Rome
2. the Bishopric of Mainz (the former Archbishopric of Mainz), which was also of electoral and primatial rank bearing the title of "the Holy See of Mainz" (Latin: Sancta Sedes Moguntina)

"The Holy See" is normally used in international relations (and in the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church) to refer to the See of Rome viewed as the central government of the Roman Catholic Church. 

The distinction also helps to refer Holy See to mean the Papacy or Supreme Pontiff governing the universal Church through the Roman Curia from the Pope’s role of bishop of the diocese of Rome which is run by the Cardinal-Vicars of Rome and Vatican City . 

Why Apostolic See?

"Apostolic See" can refer to any see founded by one of the Apostles, but, when used with the definite article, it is used in the Catholic Church to refer specifically to the see of the Bishop of Rome, whom that Church sees as successor of Saint Peter, the Prince of the Apostles.

Coat of Arms

Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven

The insignia or emblem of the papacy includes the image of two Crossed Keys beneath a tritergnum (papal tiara), one gold and one silver, bound with a red cord. This represents the "keys to the Kingdom of Heaven" (Matthew 16:19; cf. Isaiah 22:22) and is in many ways the quintessential symbol of the Papacy as an institution and of its central role within the Catholic Church. 

Jesus's statement to Simon Peter, "whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven", is understood in Roman Catholic theology as establishing two jurisdictions, Heaven and Earth. The silver and gold keys are said to represent these two jurisdictions. The silver key symbolises the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven. The interlacing cord indicating the linking between the two aspects of the power, and the handles of the key being at the base to symbolize the power being in the hands of the pope.

When the emblem of the Papacy is placed on a red backing, it becomes the Coat of Arms of the Papacy.

The Coats of arms of the Holy See and Vatican City are not the same to distinguish the two entities. The reversed arrangement of the keys was chosen for the arms of the newly founded Vatican City State in 1929. The silver key is place in the dexter position and the meanings of the keys are different. The gold key represents spiritual power, while the silver key represents worldly power.

During a Sede Vacante, when the See is vacant between the reign of two popes, the Coat of Arms used for the Holy See changes, replacing the papal tiara with the umbraculum. 

Organization “The Roman Curia”

The Pope governs the Catholic Church through the Roman Curia. The Roman Curia consists of a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level, including the Secretariat of State, nine Congregations, three Tribunals, eleven Pontifical Councils, and seven Pontifical Commissions. 

1 The Secretariat of State

The oldest dicastery in the Roman Curia,performs all the political and diplomatic functions of Vatican City and the Holy See. The Secretariat is divided into two sections, the Section for General Affairs and the Section for Relations with States, known as the First Section and Second Section, respectively. 

The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. The Cardinal Secretary of State, is the See's equivalent of a prime minister. The Secretary of the Section for Relations with States of the Secretariat of State, acts as the Holy See's minister of foreign affairs. 

The Secretariat of State is the only body of the Curia that is situated within Vatican City. The others are in buildings in different parts of Rome that have extraterritorial rights similar to those of embassies.

2 The Congregations (Each Congregation is led by a prefect, who is usually a Cardinal)

2.1 The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith - it oversees Catholic doctrine. The CDF is the modern name for what used to be the Holy Office of the Inquisition.

2.2 The Congregation for the Oriental Churches - responsible for contact with the Eastern Catholic Churches

2.3 The Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments - handles most affairs relating to liturgical practices of the Latin Catholic Church and technical matters relating to the Sacraments.

2.4 The Congregation for the Causes of Saints - oversees the complex process which leads to the canonization of saints.

2.5 The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples - responsible for missionary work and related activities.

2.6 The Sacred Congregation for the Clergy - responsible for overseeing matters regarding priests and deacons not belonging to institutes of consecrated life or societies of apostolic life.

2.7 The Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life - responsible for everything which concerns institutes of consecrated life (religious institutes and secular institutes) and societies of apostolic life, both of men and of women, regarding their government, discipline, studies, goods, rights, and privileges.

2.8 The Congregation for Catholic Education (in Seminaries and Institutes of Study) - responsible for:

• seminaries (except those regulated by the Congregations for the Evangelization of Peoples and for the Oriental Churches) and houses of formation of religious and secular institutes;

• universities, faculties, institutes and higher schools of study, either ecclesial or civil dependent on ecclesial persons; and

• schools and educational institutes depending on ecclesiastical authorities.

2.9 The Congregation for Bishops - oversees the selection of new bishops that are not in mission territories or those areas that come under the jurisdiction of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches who deal with the Eastern Catholics, pending papal approval. It also schedules the papal audiences required quinquennially for bishops and arranges the creation of new dioceses.

3 The Tribunals

3.1 The Apostolic Penitentiary - responsible for issues relating to the forgiveness of sins in the Roman Catholic Church.

• the absolution of excommunications latæ sententiæ reserved to the Holy See

• the dispensation of sacramental impediments reserved to the Holy See

• the issuance and governance of indulgences.

3.2 The Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura - is the highest judicial authority in the Catholic Church besides the Pope himself, who is the supreme ecclesiastical judge. In addition, it is an administrative office for matters pertaining to the judicial activity of the whole Church. It is the supreme appellate and administrative court concerning decisions even of the Roman Rota and administrative decisions of ecclesiastical superiors (bishops and superiors of religious institutes), such as closing a parish or removing someone from office. It also oversees the work of other ecclesiastical tribunals at all levels. 

3.3 The Tribunal of the Rota Romana -handles normal judicial appeals, the most numerous being those that concern alleged nullity of marriage.

4 The Pontifical Councils

4.1 The Pontifical Council for the Laity

4.2 The Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity

4.3 The Pontifical Council for the Family

4.4 The Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace

4.5 The Pontifical Council Cor Unum -for Human and Christian Development and it undertakes this mission by carrying out humanitarian relief operations following disasters, fostering charity, and encouraging cooperation and coordination of other Catholic organizations.

4.6 The Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Migrants and Itinerants

4.7 The Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care Workers

4.8 The Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts - laws of the Church

4.9 The Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue

4.10 The Pontifical Council for Culture

4.11 The Pontifical Council for Social Communications -it is responsible for using the various forms of the media in spreading the Gospel.

4.12 The Pontifical Council for Promoting the New Evangelization

5 The Synod of Bishops

The Synod of Bishops was formed during the Second Vatican Council, introduced by the decree Christus Dominus. It is an advisory body of the Pope, whose members are elected by bishops from around the world. The Pope serves as its president or appoints its president, determines its agenda, summons, suspends, and dissolves the synod, and can also appoint additional members to it (can. 344). Members of the synod express their opinions on matters on an individual basis (i.e., no decrees or resolutions are issued by the synod), but the Pope, at his option, can grant it that power, in which case its decrees or resolutions are approved and promulgated by him alone (can. 343). The Synod of Bishops is suspended when the Holy See is vacant.

6 The Offices

6.1 The Apostolic Camera - is the central board of finance in the Papal administrative system

6.2 The Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See - deals with the "properties owned by the Holy See in order to provide the funds necessary for the Roman Curia to function"

6.3 The Prefecture for the Economic Affairs of the Holy See - entrusted with overseeing all the offices of the Holy See that manage finances, regardless of their degree of autonomy. It does not manage finances itself, but instead audits the balance sheets and budgets of the offices that do. It then prepares and publishes annually a general financial report. It must be consulted on all projects of major importance undertaken by the offices in question.

7 The Pontifical Commissions

7.1 The Pontifical Commission for the Cultural Heritage of the Church -an institution that guards the historical and artistic patrimony of the entire Church which includes works of art, historical documents, books, everything kept in museums as well as the libraries and archives.

7.2 The Pontifical Commission "Ecclesia Dei" - a commission of the Roman Catholic Church established by Pope John Paul II's motu proprio Ecclesia Dei of 2 July 1988 for the care of those former followers of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre who broke with him as a result of his consecration of four priests of his Society of St. Pius X as bishops on 30 June 1988, an act the Holy See deemed illicit and schismatic.

7.3 The Pontifical Commission for Sacred Archaeology- created by Pius IX (6 January 1852) "to take care of the ancient sacred cemeteries, look after their preventive preservation, further explorations, research and study, and also safeguard the oldest mementos of the early Christian centuries, the outstanding monuments and venerable Basilicas in Rome, in the Roman suburbs and soil, and in the other Dioceses in agreement with the respective Ordinaries".

7.4 The Pontifical Biblical Commission - a consultative body of scholars placed under the authority of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, with duties:

1. to protect and defend the integrity of the Catholic Faith in Biblical matters

2. to further the progress of exposition of the Sacred Books, taking account of all recent discoveries

3. to decide controversies on grave questions which may arise among Catholic scholars

4. to give answers to Catholics throughout the world who may consult the Commission

5. to see that the Vatican Library is properly furnished with codices and necessary books

6. to publish studies on Scripture as occasion may demand.

7.5 The International Theological Commission - a dicastery of the Roman Curia consisting of 30 Catholic theologians from around the world. Its function is to advise the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF) of the Roman Catholic Church.

7.6 Interdicasterial Commissions - a temporary commission set up to deal with a matter involving the work of several departments of the Roman Curia

7.7 The Pontifical Commission for Latin America - Established by Pope Pius XII on 19 April 1958, it is charged with providing assistance to and examining matters pertaining to the Church in Latin America. The Commission operates under the auspices of the Congregation for Bishops.

8 The Swiss Guard

9 The Labour Office of the Apostolic See - is responsible for labour relations of the Holy See with its employees. The office also settles labour issues which arise.

10 The Pontifical Academies

10.1 The Pontifical Academy Cultorum Martyrum - promotes devotion to martyrs, enhances and deepens the exact history of the witnesses of the faith, and monuments related to them, from the first centuries of Christianity.

10.2 The Pontifical Ecclesistical Academy - is dedicated to training priests to serve in the diplomatic corps and the Secretariat of State of the Holy See.

10.3 The Pontifical Academy for Life - institution dedicated to promoting the Church's consistent life ethic. It also does related research on bioethics and Catholic moral theology.

10.4 The Pontifical Academy of Sciences - to promote the progress of the mathematical, physical and natural sciences and the study of related epistemological problems.

10.5 The Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences - promoting the study and progress of the social sciences, primarily economics, sociology, law and political science.

11 The Prefecture of the Papal Household - is responsible for the organization of the papal household, audiences, and ceremonies (apart from the strictly liturgical part).

The Holy See does not dissolve upon a Pope's death or resignation. It instead operates under a different set of laws sede vacante. During this interregnum, the heads of the dicasteries of the Roman Curia (such as the prefects of congregations) cease immediately to hold office, the only exceptions being the Major Penitentiary, who continues his important role regarding absolutions and dispensations, and the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, who administers the temporalities (i.e., properties and finances) of the See of St. Peter during this period. 

The government of the See, and therefore of the Catholic Church, then falls to the College of Cardinals. Canon law prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the Church during this period.

Finances & Net Worth

The Holy See does not openly publish figures. In 2001 it was reported, the Holy See had a revenue of 422.098 billion Italian lire (about 202 million USD at the time), and a net income of 17.720 billion Italian lire (about 8 million USD). 

According to an article by David Leigh in the Guardian newspaper, a 2012 report from the Council of Europe identified the value of a section of the Vatican's property assets as an amount in excess of €680m (£570m). 

Status in International law

The Holy See has been recognised, both in state practice and in the writing of modern legal scholars, as a subject of public international law, with rights and duties analogous to those of States. It is in itself a Sovereign state.

Although the Holy See, as distinct from the Vatican City State, does not fulfill the long-established criteria in international law of statehood which requires having a permanent population, a defined territory, a stable government and the capacity to enter into relations with other states, its possession of full legal personality in international law is shown by the fact that it maintains diplomatic relations with 180 states, that it is a member-state in various intergovernmental international organizations, and that it is: "respected by the international community of sovereign States and treated as a subject of international law having the capacity to engage in diplomatic relations and to enter into binding agreements with one, several, or many states under international law that are largely geared to establish and preserving peace in the world."

Diplomacy & Diplomatic Relations

Foreign relations with the Holy See (in green)

  

Since medieval times the episcopal see of Rome has been recognized as a sovereign entity. The Holy See (not the State of Vatican City) maintains formal diplomatic relations with 180 sovereign states and also with the European Union, and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, as well as having relations of a special character with the Palestine Liberation Organization

69 of the diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See are situated in Rome. The Holy See maintains 180 permanent diplomatic missions abroad, of which 74 are non-residential, so that many of its 106 concrete missions are accredited to two or more countries or international organizations. There are 15 internationally recognized states with which the Holy See does not have relations. The Holy See is the only European subject of international law that has official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan).

The diplomatic activities of the Holy See are directed by the Secretariat of State (headed by the Cardinal Secretary of State, defacto Prime Minister), through the Section for Relations with States (the Section Secretary is the defacto Foreign Minister). 

The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office speaks of Vatican City as the "capital" of the Holy See, although it compares the legal personality of the Holy See to that of the Crown in Christian monarchies and declares that the Holy See and the state of Vatican City are two international identities. It also distinguishes between the employees of the Holy See (2,750 working in the Roman Curia with another 333 working in the Holy See's diplomatic missions abroad) and the 1,909 employees of the state.

 The British Ambassador to the Holy See uses more precise language, saying that the Holy See "is not the same as the Vatican City State. … (It) is the universal government of the Catholic Church and operates from the Vatican City State." This agrees exactly with the expression used by the website of the United States Department of State, in giving information on both the Holy See and the Vatican City State: it too says that the Holy See "operates from the Vatican City State".

The Holy See is a member of various International organizations and groups including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Telecommunication Union, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Holy See is also a permanent observer in various international organizations, including the United Nations General Assembly, the Council of Europe, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

The Holy See, not the Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states maintaining embassies of the Holy See in foreign countries called Apostolic Nunciatures. The ambassadors are called Papal Nuncios who are usually titular Archbishops. Apostolic Nunciatures enjoy full diplomatic status and immunity as with any state embassy in a foreign country. 

The two entities have distinct passports: the Holy See, not being a country, issues only diplomatic and service passports, whereas Vatican City State issues normal passports.

Vatican City State

Although the Holy See is recognised by international law and various states as a sovereign entity in itself, it is not a country. The Holy See is the papacy or government of the Church and at its core the episcopal see of Rome of which the Pope is bishop, not citizen.

Therefore to have independence from Italy (or a state) so as to carry out the mission of Christ independently from any political influence, the State of the Vatican City was created by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 to ensure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See and to guarantee to it an indisputable sovereignty in international affairs. 

The Holy See operates from the Vatican City State and enjoys full independence. 

The Pope is a citizen of the Vatican City State and by virtue of his office of Bishop of Rome, he is also the Sovereign of the Vatican City State.